An exploration of miracles in religious belief, including definitions, types, challenges from Hume, and debates about evidence, faith, and reason. This topic explores philosophical and theological debates surrounding miracles, focusing on how they are defined, evaluated, and understood within religious belief,particularly Christianity. It examines both traditional and critical perspectives and assesses whether belief in miracles is rationally justified. What Is a Miracle? General understanding of miracles as extraordinary events attributed to divine intervention Distinction between natural and supernatural explanations The role of miracles in religious belief and faith traditions Realist and Anti-Realist views Aquinas on miracles Hume’s Definition of a Miracle David Hume’s definition: a miracle as a violation of the laws of nature The idea that laws of nature are established by uniform human experience The implication that miracles are extremely improbable Hume’s argument that testimony is never sufficient to prove a miracle Hume’s Critique of Belief in Miracles The problem of unreliable testimony The influence of ignorance, superstition, and emotional bias Competing miracle claims across different religions Hume’s conclusion that it is always more rational to reject miracle claims Responses to Hume Richard Swinburne’s understanding of miracles as non-repeatable divine acts The principle of testimony: when testimony should be accepted The idea that miracles may be the most reasonable explanation of certain events Criticisms of Hume’s narrow definition of natural law Holland Wiels and Hume comparison Miracles as Signs - Tillich Miracles understood as signs of God’s activity rather than violations of nature Biblical examples, such as healing miracles and resurrection narratives The role of miracles in strengthening faith rather than proving God’s existence Evaluation and Debates Whether miracles can be rationally believed Whether miracles undermine scientific understanding The relationship between faith and reason Are miracles necessary for religious belief? Essay questions

An exploration of religious experience, including visions, conversion, mysticism and challenges to their validity and interpretation. This topic explores the nature, types, and validity of religious experience, examining how such experiences are understood, interpreted, and evaluated within philosophy of religion. Students consider whether religious experiences provide credible evidence for the existence of God. What Is Religious Experience? Definition of religious experience as an encounter with the divine or transcendent Religious experience as personal, subjective, and often transformative Distinction between public and private experiences Types of Religious Experience a. Visions Corporeal visions – physical appearances seen with the senses Imaginative visions – experienced through the mind or imagination Intellectual visions – non-sensory awareness of divine truth Examples from religious traditions (e.g. biblical visions and modern day examples) b. Conversion Experiences Sudden conversion (e.g. St Paul) Gradual conversion Psychological and emotional dimensions Near death conversions c. Mystical Experiences Union with the divine or ultimate reality Ineffability, transcendence, and unity William James’ features of mystical experience: Ineffability, Noetic quality, Transiency and Passivity Characteristics of Religious Experience William James’ criteria for genuine religious experience Rudolf Otto’s explanation of religious experiences The role of emotion, perception, and interpretation The impact of religious experiences on belief and behaviour Arguments in Favour of Religious Experience The principle of credulity (Swinburne): we should trust experiences unless we have reason not to The principle of testimony: we should trust others’ reports of experience Religious experiences as cumulative evidence for belief in God Challenges and Criticisms Psychological explanations (e.g. Freud, Jung) Physiological explanations (brain states, drugs, illness) with examples such as Persiger’s helmet. Cultural conditioning and expectation Conflicting religious experiences across traditions Essay questions and brief outline guidance in answering.

An exploration of Plato and Aristotle’s influence on religious thought, examining soul, body, purpose, virtue, and their lasting impact on philosophy and theology for the OCR syllabus. This topic explores how ancient Greek philosophy, particularly the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, has shaped religious and ethical thinking. Students examine key metaphysical and ethical ideas and assess their continuing influence on Christian theology and philosophical thought. Plato’s Philosophy The Theory of Forms The distinction between the World of Forms and the World of Appearances Forms as perfect, eternal, and unchanging realities The Form of the Good as the highest and ultimate reality Plato’s cave analogy Plato’s View of the Soul The soul as immortal and pre-existent The tripartite soul: Reason (rational), Spirit (emotion/ambition),Appetite (desire) The analogy of the charioteer -The soul’s relationship to knowledge, morality, and the Forms Aristotle’s Philosophy Aristotle’s Rejection of Plato’s Theory of Forms Forms exist within objects, not separately Knowledge comes from observation and experience Emphasis on empirical investigation Aristotle’s View of Purpose and Causation The Four Causes: material, formal, efficient, and final Teleology: everything has an end or purpose (telos) Evaluation and Criticisms Strengths and weaknesses of Platonic dualism Problems with Aristotle’s rejection of an immortal soul Relevance of ancient philosophy to modern religious belief Whether ancient ideas remain persuasive today Essay questions

An exploration of the nature of the soul, mind and body, including dualism, materialism, and debates about identity, consciousness and life after death. This topic explores philosophical and religious debates about what it means to be human, focusing on the relationship between the soul, mind and body. It examines classical and modern theories, alongside religious views about life, death, and personal identity. The Concept of the Soul The soul as the essence or animating principle of a human being Religious understandings of the soul (particularly within Christianity) The soul as the seat of identity, personality, and morality Distinction between soul, mind, and body Plato and the Soul Plato’s dualistic view of body and soul The soul as immortal and pre-existent The tripartite soul: reason, spirit, appetite The soul’s imprisonment in the body and its release at death Influence on later religious thought World of the forms and Plato’s cave Aristotle and the Soul Rejection of Plato’s dualism The soul as the form of the body (hylomorphism) Different types of soul: Vegetative (plants), Sensitive (animals) and Rational (humans) The soul as inseparable from the body Mind–Body Dualism René Descartes’ substance dualism Problems with interaction between mind and body Materialist and Physicalist Views The view that only physical matter exists Mind as a product of brain processes Challenges to belief in an immaterial soul Type-Identity Theory Implications for life after death and personal identity Dawkins criticisms Gilbert Rule and categroy error and the ghost in the machine Life After Death Resurrection vs immortality of the soul Religious views on the afterlife Philosophical problems of personal identity over time Evaluation and Debate Strengths and weaknesses of dualism and materialism Whether humans can exist without a body The relationship between science, philosophy, and religion Is belief in the soul coherent in a modern scientific worldview? Essay questions and guide to answering

An exploration of the Ontological Argument for God’s existence, focusing on a priori reasoning, Anselm, Gaunilo, Descartes and Kant. This topic examines arguments for the existence of God based solely on reason, rather than experience or observation. It focuses primarily on the Ontological Argument, exploring classical and modern formulations, key criticisms, and its philosophical significance. Introduction to Arguments Based on Reason Definition of a-priori reasoning (knowledge gained independently of experience) Contrast with a-posteriori arguments (based on observation) examples of deductive, inductive, analytic and synthetic arguments The claim that God’s existence can be deduced logically from the concept of God alone Anselm’s Ontological Argument Anselm’s definition of God as “that than which nothing greater can be conceived” The distinction between existing in the mind and existing in reality The claim that existence in reality is greater than existence in the mind alone Conclusion: God must exist in reality, otherwise He would not be the greatest conceivable being Anselm’s Second Formulation God as a necessary being rather than a contingent one The idea that God cannot be conceived not to exist -Necessary existence as a perfection Gaunilo’s Criticism The “perfect island” objection Argument that Anselm’s logic could be used to prove the existence of anything perfect Question of whether existence can be treated as a predicate Descartes’ Version of the Ontological Argument God defined as a supremely perfect being Existence as a perfection God’s existence follows logically from the concept of God Comparison to mathematical truths (e.g. triangle having three sides) 3 waves of doubt Kant’s Critique Rejection of existence as a real predicate Argued that existence does not add a property to a concept Therefore, the ontological argument fails to prove God’s existence Norman Malcom’s argument God being the ‘unlimited being’ development of Anselm’s second argument Thomas Aquinas critique of Anselm’s ontological argument use of reason and observation together Russell critique of Anselm’s ontological argument Evaluation and Debate Strengths of a priori reasoning Whether existence can meaningfully be defined as a property Whether the argument proves anything beyond a concept Ongoing relevance of the ontological argument in philosophy of religion Essay questions and guidance on how to answer

An exploration of philosophical arguments for God’s existence, including cosmological and teleological arguments, and key criticisms of a-posteriori arguments. This topic examines philosophical arguments for the existence of God that rely on observation (a-posteriori reasoning). It focuses mainly on the Cosmological Argument and the Teleological (Design) Argument, along with key criticisms and evaluations. Introduction to Arguments Based on Observation The use of human reason and observation to infer the existence of God and examples The difference between a priori and a posteriori arguments The role of logic, causation, and explanation in philosophical theology The Cosmological Argument The Cosmological Argument attempts to explain why anything exists at all. Aquinas’ argument: from motion, causation and contingency The Kalam argument Challenges to the Cosmological Argument David Hume’s critique of causation The possibility of an infinite regress Bertrand Russell’s rejection of the need for a first cause and the Coppleston debate Scientific challenges, including quantum theory and cosmology The Teleological (Design) Argument The argument from design based on order, purpose, and regularity William Paley’s Watchmaker Analogy The inference from design to a designer Design in nature and the universe FR Tennant arguments: Goldilocks Theory (the Anthropic principle) and the Aesthetic principle Criticisms of the Design Argument David Hume’s criticisms Darwinian evolution as an alternative explanation Chance vs necessity Evaluation and Debate Are reason-based arguments sufficient to justify belief in God? Strengths and limitations of a-posteriori arguments Whether these arguments remain persuasive in modern philosophy Essay examples with guidance in answering

An explanation of the problem of evil, including logical and evidential challenges, key responses, and religious solutions to suffering. This topic examines the challenge that evil and suffering pose to belief in an all-powerful, all-loving God. Students explore classical formulations of the problem, religious responses, and philosophical debates surrounding the compatibility of God and evil. The Nature of Evil Definitions of moral evil (caused by human actions) Natural evil (suffering caused by natural events such as earthquakes or disease) The problem of evil as a challenge to belief in a benevolent, omnipotent God The Logical Problem of Evil Mackie’s Inconsident Triad The apparent contradiction between: God’s omnipotence God’s omnibenevolence The existence of evil The claim that the traditional concept of God is logically inconsistent The Evidential Problem of Evil Focuses on the amount and intensity of suffering in the world Argues that the scale of suffering makes God’s existence unlikely Examples of seemingly pointless or gratuitous suffering Augustine’s Theodicy Evil as privation of good, not a substance Creation was originally perfect Moral evil arises from human free will Natural evil as a consequence of the Fall God remains omnibenevolent and omnipotent Criticisms: Challenges from science (evolution, natural disasters) The justice of inherited sin Compatibility with modern views of the world Irenaean ( and Hick’s) Theodicy Evil as necessary for soul-making Humanity created imperfect and develops morally -The role of suffering in spiritual growth Epistemic distance allows genuine freedom Criticisms: Excessive or pointless suffering The suffering of children and animals Questions about proportionality The Free Will Defence Developed from Augustine and modern thinkers (e.g. Plantinga) Moral evil as the result of genuine free choice God cannot create free beings who always choose good Natural evil as a consequence of free non-human agents or a stable world Evaluation and Debate Whether evil disproves the existence of God The success of theodicies in defending divine attributes The emotional vs logical impact of evil Is suffering compatible with a loving God? Essay questions and guidance in answering

This topic explores the key attributes traditionally ascribed to God within classical theism and examines philosophical challenges to understanding God’s nature. It considers whether divine attributes are coherent, compatible, and meaningful within religious belief. Understanding the Nature of God The concept of God within classical theism God as a necessary, eternal, and perfect being The importance of divine attributes in theology -Whether God can be meaningfully described using human language Omnipotence (All-Powerful) Definition of omnipotence Aquinas’ view: God can do all things that are logically possible The paradox of the stone (“Can God create a stone too heavy for Him to lift?”) Whether logical limits restrict divine power Descartes’ omnipotence argument Swinburne’s omnipotence argument Peter vardy’s omnipotence argument Criticisms Omniscience (All-Knowing) God’s knowledge of past, present, and future The problem of human free will and divine foreknowledge Boethius’ view of God as eternal and outside time Does God’s foreknowledge limit human freedom? Swinburne’s omniscience argument Anselm’s omiscience argument Criticisms of eternal and everlasting Omnibenevolence (All-Loving) The claim that God is perfectly good Relationship between divine goodness and moral perfection Biblical examples Criticisms and the challenge of evil and suffering Can an all-loving God permit evil? Essay questions and guidance in answering

An exploration of religious language, focusing on analogy, via negativa and symbolism, and how humans meaningfully speak about God. This topic examines how religious language functions, particularly how humans can meaningfully talk about God despite God’s transcendence. It focuses on Aquinas’ theory of analogy, via negativa, and symbolic language, evaluating whether religious language successfully communicates divine truths. The Problem of Religious Language God as transcendent and beyond human understanding The challenge of describing an infinite being using finite human language The risk of anthropomorphism The question: Can language about God be meaningful at all? Via Negativa (The Apathatic Way/The Negative Way) Associated with Pseudo-Dionysius, Moses Maimonides and later Aquinas God can only be described by stating what God is not Strengths and weaknesses Via Positiva (The Cataphatic Way/The Positive Way) Aquinas’ Theory of Analogy a. Analogy of Attribution b. Analogy of Proportion Strengths and weaknesses Symbolic Language Developed by Paul Tillich Symbols participate in the reality to which they point key features and examples Strengths and weaknesses Evaluation and Debate Can humans meaningfully speak about a transcendent God? Does analogy succeed where literal language fails? Are symbols sufficient to convey divine truth? essay questions and guidance in answering

An exploration of 20th-century views on religious language, including verification, falsification, language games, parables and their impact on meaning. This topic explores modern philosophical challenges to religious language, focusing on whether statements about God are meaningful, verifiable, or falsifiable. It examines key twentieth-century thinkers who questioned traditional religious discourse and reshaped debates about meaning. The Context of 20th-Century Religious Language Rise of logical positivism and analytic philosophy Emphasis on scientific verification and linguistic clarity Rejection of metaphysical claims that cannot be empirically tested Shift from metaphysical speculation to language analysis Cognitive and non-cognitive analysis The Verification Principle – A.J. Ayer Meaningful statements must be empirically verifiable or analytically true Religious and metaphysical statements are neither verifiable nor falsifiable Criticisms The Falsification Principle – Antony Flew Meaningful statements must be falsifiable Parable of the Gardener death by a thousand qualifications R.M. Hare’s Blik theory – religious statements express fundamental worldviews and the Parable of the Paranoid Lunatic Basil Mitchell’s Partisan Parable (Parable of the Stranger) – faith involves trust despite counter-evidence Wittgenstein and Language Games Meaning is determined by use within a language community Religious language operates within its own “language game” Belief systems have internal logic and rules Religious language need not conform to scientific standards Evaluation of 20th-Century Approaches Whether religious language can be meaningful without empirical verification Strengths and weaknesses of verification and falsification The usefulness of language games in understanding belief Ongoing debate about cognitive vs non-cognitive religious language Essay questions and guidance in answering.

This in-depth resource covers the AQA A-Level Philosophy topic of Moral Responsibility, exploring the key philosophical debates surrounding free will, determinism, and moral accountability. It is designed for both students and teachers, providing clear explanations, structured content, and exam-focused material to support high-level understanding and assessment preparation. Topics Covered Free Will and Moral Responsibility • What it means to act freely • The conditions required for moral responsibility • The relationship between freedom, choice, and blame • The difference between voluntary and involuntary actions Determinism • The claim that all events are causally determined • Hard determinism and the denial of moral responsibility • Key arguments supporting determinism (scientific, psychological, theological) • Implications for praise, blame, punishment, and moral accountability Libertarianism • The belief that humans possess genuine free will • Agent causation and the idea that individuals can initiate actions • Challenges to libertarianism, including randomness and lack of control • Key philosophers and thought experiments supporting libertarian freedom Compatibilism • The view that free will and determinism are compatible • Freedom as the ability to act according to one’s desires without external constraint • Soft determinism and moral responsibility • Strengths and weaknesses of compatibilist theories Moral Responsibility and Punishment • The relationship between free will and moral accountability • Justifications for punishment: retributive vs consequentialist approaches • Whether punishment is fair in a determined world • The role of moral responsibility in praise, blame, and justice Essay questions.

An in-depth exploration of conscience in ethics, covering Aquinas, Butler, Freud and Freud, and debates about moral authority and moral decision-making. This resource provides a comprehensive and exam-focused exploration of the topic of conscience, as set out in the OCR A-Level Religious Studies (Ethics) specification. It is designed to support both teaching and independent study, offering clear explanations of key theories, scholars, and evaluative debates surrounding moral decision-making. Topics Covered The Nature and Role of Conscience What is meant by conscience in moral philosophy Whether conscience is an innate moral faculty or socially developed The role of conscience in moral decision-making Aquinas and Conscience Aquinas’ understanding of synderesis and conscientia The relationship between reason, natural law, and conscience Conscience as the application of moral knowledge to particular situations Strengths and criticisms of Aquinas’ account Sigmund Freud and the Development of Conscience The psychoanalytic account of conscience The role of the superego, id and ego in moral development psychosexual development Guilt, repression, and the influence of society and upbringing Strengths and weaknesses of Freud’s approach Conscience, Moral Authority and Moral Disagreement Is conscience a reliable guide to moral truth? Can conscience justify moral disagreement or immoral actions? The problem of mistaken conscience Whether conscience should always be followed Comparison between Aquinas and Freud Past essay question outlines