We understand the importance of education. We offer tailored private tuition designed to maximise success at GCSE, A Level and beyond. Our tutors are experienced professionals, teachers and top-tier graduates with extensive knowledge in their subjects.
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We understand the importance of education. We offer tailored private tuition designed to maximise success at GCSE, A Level and beyond. Our tutors are experienced professionals, teachers and top-tier graduates with extensive knowledge in their subjects.
On Tes we offer high quality board-specific resources. Please check back regularly as we are continually updating our stock.
The original and still the best! For a fourth year running, our heads of department have been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2025!
This is for the following paper: 4BI1 - 1B
These questions are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
Our mock paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Biology 1B paper closely, with the CORMS and graph question included. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 1b - Variety of living organisms (1.2 - 1.4)
• Topic 2c - Biological molecules (2.7 - 2.11)
• Topic 2e - Nutrition (2.18 - 2.20)
• Topic 2h - Transport (2.59 - 2.62)
• Topic 2j - Co-ordination and response (2.90)
• Topic 3a - Reproduction (3.8 - 3.9)
• Topic 3b - Inheritance (3.19 - 3.23, 3.38)
• Topic 4b - Feeding relationships (4.6)
• Topic 4d - Human influences on the environment (4.16)
• Topic 5a - Food production (5.2 - 5.4)
• Topic 5b - Selective breeding (5.10 - 5.11)
• Topic 5c - Genetic modification (5.12 - 5.14)
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the Pearson Edexcel IGCSE Biology course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2025 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!
This is for the following paper: 4BI1 - 2B
These questions are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
Our mock paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Biology 2B paper closely. The obligatory comprehension question is also included. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 2e - Nutrition (2.25 - 2.28)
• Topic 2i - Excretion (2.72B - 2.76B)
• Topic 2j - Coordination and response (2.83 - 2.92)
• Topic 3a - Reproduction (3.3 - 3.7)
• Topic 3b - Inheritance (3.16B - 3.18B)
• Topic 4c - Cycles within ecosystems (4.11B - 4.15)
• Topic 5a - Food production (5.9B)
• Topic 5d - Cloning (5.17B - 5.18B)
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the Pearson Edexcel IGCSE Biology course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!
These questions are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
This is for the following paper: AQA A Level Biology Paper 3 (7402/3)
Our predicted paper follows the format of the true AQA A Level Biology Paper 3 closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty and the obligatory essay question. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• 3.2.1 - Cell structure
• 3.2.4 - Cell recognition and the immune system
• 3.5.2 - Respiration
• 3.6.4 - Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment
• 3.7.2 - Populations
• 3.7.4 - Evolution may lead to speciation
• 3.8.2 - Gene expression is controlled by a number of features
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the AQA A Level Biology course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
The complete Edexcel IGCSE Biology course from start to finish. Huge bundle of resources with every topic covered.
Be sure to check out our worksheets!
Complete set of concise, modern presentations for Edexcel IGCSE Biology (4BI0) Chapters 1 - 7. Contains colour coded specification points with handmade vector graphics. 62 presentations included:
1 - Characteristics of Living Organisms
2 - Variety of Living Organisms
3 - Organisation and Cell Structure
4 - Cell Differentiation
5 - Biological Molecules
6 - Food Tests
7 - Enzymes
8 - Enzymes and pH
9 - Movement Across Membranes
10 - Nutrition in Plants
11 - The Leaf
12 - Investigating Photosynthesis
13 - Human Nutrition
14 - The Digestive System
15 - Digestion and Absorption
16 - Energy in Food
17 - Respiration
18 - Gas Exchange in Plants
19 - Ventilation
20 - The Alveoli and Lung Disease
21 - Transport Mechanisms
22 - Transpiration
23 - The Blood
24 - Vaccination
25 - The Heart
26 - The Circulatory System
27 - Excretion
28 - The Kidneys
29 - Coordination
30 - Coordination in Plants
31 - Coordnation in Animals
32 - Reflexes and the Eye
33 - Controlling Body Temperature
34 - Hormones
35 - More Hormones
36 - Reproduction
37 - Reproduction in Plants
38 - Human Reproductive Systems and the Menstrual Cycle
39 - FSH and LH
40 - Pregnancy and Puberty
41 - DNA, Genes and Chromosomes
42 - Nucleic Acids
43 - Inheritance and Codominance
44 - Genetic Diagrams
45 - Cell Division
46 - Variation in a Species
47 - Mutations
48 - Evolution
49 - Ecosystems
50 - Biodiversity
51 - Biotic and Abiotic Factors
52 - Feeding Relationships
53 - The Carbon Cycle
54 - The Nitrogen Cycle
55 - Pollution and Global Warming
56 - Deforestation
57 - Crop Production
58 - Microorganisms for Food
59 - Fish Farming
60 - Selective Breeding
61 - Genetic Modification
62 - Cloning
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!
This is for the following papers: 4CH1 - 1C and 4CH1 - 2C.
For 1C:
Our predicted paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry 1C paper closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 1c - Atomic structure (1.14 - 1.17)
• Topic 1d - The periodic table (1.18 - 1.24)
• Topic 1e - Chemical formulae, equations and calculations (1.25 - 1.33)
• Topic 1f - Ionic bonding (1.37 - 1.41)
• Topic 1g - Covalent bonding (1.44 - 1.47)
• Topic 2a - Group 1 (2.1 - 2.3)
• Topic 2c - Gases in the atmosphere (2.10 - 2.14)
• Topic 2g - Acids, bases and salt preparations (2.35 - 2.39)
• Topic 2h - Chemical tests (2.44 – 2.50)
• Topic 3a - Energetics (3.1 - 3.4)
• Topic 3b - Rates of reaction (3.12 - 3.13)
• Topic 3c - Reversible reactions and equilibria (3.17)
• Topic 4a - Hydrocarbons (4.1 - 4.6)
• Topic 4c - Alkanes (4.19 - 4.22)
• Topic 4h - Synthetic polymers (4.44 - 4.47)
For 2C:
Our predicted paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry 2C paper closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 1b - Elements, compounds and mixtures (1.8 - 1.10)
• Topic 1i - Electrolysis (1.55C - 1.60C)
• Topic 1e - Chemical formulae, equations and calculations (1.25 - 1.33)
• Topic 2e - Extraction and uses of metals (2.22C - 2.27C)
• Topic 2f - Acids, alkalis and titrations (2.28 - 2.33C)
• Topic 3c - Reversible reactions and equilibria (3.17 - 3.22C)
• Topic 4f - Carboxylic acids (4.34C - 4.35C)
• Topic 4g - Esters (4.38C - 4.42C)
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the Pearson Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
UPDATE! The issue with downloading Paper 1 is now fixed!
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!
Look no further, the complete set of AQA A Level Biology (7402) predicted exams. 3 full papers with mark schemes.
These questions are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
This is for the following papers: 7402/1, 7402/2 and 7402/3
For Paper 1:
Our predicted paper follows the format of the true AQA A Level Biology Paper 1 closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• 3.1.2 - Carbohydrates
• 3.1.4 - Proteins
• 3.1.5 - Nucleic acids are important information-carrying molecules
• 3.2.1 - Cell structure
• 3.2.3 - Transport across cell membranes
• 3.3.4 - Mass transport
• 3.4.2 - DNA and protein synthesis
• 3.4.5 - Species and taxonomy
• 3.4.6 - Biodiversity within a community
• 3.4.7 - Investigating biodiversity
For Paper 2:
Our predicted paper follows the format of the true AQA A Level Biology Paper 2 closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• 3.5.1 - Photosynthesis
• 3.5.3 - Energy and ecosystems
• 3.5.4 - Nutrient cycles
• 3.6.1 - Stimuli, both internal and external, are detected and lead to a response
• 3.6.2 - Nervous communication
• 3.7.1 - Inheritance
• 3.7.4 - Populations in ecosystems
• 3.8.1 - Alteration of the sequence of bases in DNA can alter the structure of proteins
• 3.8.4 - Recombinant DNA technology
For Paper 3:
Our predicted paper follows the format of the true AQA A Level Biology Paper 3 closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty and the obligatory essay question. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• 3.2.1 - Cell structure
• 3.2.4 - Cell recognition and the immune system
• 3.5.2 - Respiration
• 3.6.4 - Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment
• 3.7.2 - Populations
• 3.7.4 - Evolution may lead to speciation
• 3.8.2 - Gene expression is controlled by a number of features
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the AQA A Level Biology course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!
These questions are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
This is for the following paper: AQA A Level Biology Paper 1 (7402/1)
Our predicted paper follows the format of the true AQA A Level Biology Paper 1 closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• 3.1.2 - Carbohydrates
• 3.1.4 - Proteins
• 3.1.5 - Nucleic acids are important information-carrying molecules
• 3.2.1 - Cell structure
• 3.2.3 - Transport across cell membranes
• 3.3.4 - Mass transport
• 3.4.2 - DNA and protein synthesis
• 3.4.5 - Species and taxonomy
• 3.4.6 - Biodiversity within a community
• 3.4.7 - Investigating biodiversity
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the AQA A Level Biology course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!
These questions are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
This is for the following paper: AQA A Level Biology Paper 2 (7402/2)
Our predicted paper follows the format of the true AQA A Level Biology Paper 2 closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• 3.5.1 - Photosynthesis
• 3.5.3 - Energy and ecosystems
• 3.5.4 - Nutrient cycles
• 3.6.1 - Stimuli, both internal and external, are detected and lead to a response
• 3.6.2 - Nervous communication
• 3.7.1 - Inheritance
• 3.7.4 - Populations in ecosystems
• 3.8.1 - Alteration of the sequence of bases in DNA can alter the structure of proteins
• 3.8.4 - Recombinant DNA technology
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the AQA A Level Biology course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
The Definitive Edexcel IGCSE Biology Set - Presentations and Companion Worksheets.
Full set of mock exams now included!
Huge bundle of resources with every topic covered.
Complete set of concise, modern presentations and companion worksheets for Edexcel IGCSE Biology (4BI0) Chapters 1 - 7. Contains colour coded specification points with handmade vector graphics. 62 presentations and companion worksheets included:
1 - Characteristics of Living Organisms
2 - Variety of Living Organisms
3 - Organisation and Cell Structure
4 - Cell Differentiation
5 - Biological Molecules
6 - Food Tests
7 - Enzymes
8 - Enzymes and pH
9 - Movement Across Membranes
10 - Nutrition in Plants
11 - The Leaf
12 - Investigating Photosynthesis
13 - Human Nutrition
14 - The Digestive System
15 - Digestion and Absorption
16 - Energy in Food
17 - Respiration
18 - Gas Exchange in Plants
19 - Ventilation
20 - The Alveoli and Lung Disease
21 - Transport Mechanisms
22 - Transpiration
23 - The Blood
24 - Vaccination
25 - The Heart
26 - The Circulatory System
27 - Excretion
28 - The Kidneys
29 - Coordination
30 - Coordination in Plants
31 - Coordnation in Animals
32 - Reflexes and the Eye
33 - Controlling Body Temperature
34 - Hormones
35 - More Hormones
36 - Reproduction
37 - Reproduction in Plants
38 - Human Reproductive Systems and the Menstrual Cycle
39 - FSH and LH
40 - Pregnancy and Puberty
41 - DNA, Genes and Chromosomes
42 - Nucleic Acids
43 - Inheritance and Codominance
44 - Genetic Diagrams
45 - Cell Division
46 - Variation in a Species
47 - Mutations
48 - Evolution
49 - Ecosystems
50 - Biodiversity
51 - Biotic and Abiotic Factors
52 - Feeding Relationships
53 - The Carbon Cycle
54 - The Nitrogen Cycle
55 - Pollution and Global Warming
56 - Deforestation
57 - Crop Production
58 - Microorganisms for Food
59 - Fish Farming
60 - Selective Breeding
61 - Genetic Modification
62 - Cloning
The complete collection of Summer 2024 predicted exams for Edexcel IGCSE Science (Double Award) - 4SD0.
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!.
The questions found in these papers are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
This is for the following papers: 4SD0 - 1B, 1C and 1P
For 1B:
Our mock paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Biology 1B paper closely, with the CORMS and graph question included. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 1b - Variety of living organisms (1.2 - 1.4)
• Topic 2b - Cell structure (2.2 - 2.3)
• Topic 2c - Biological molecules (2.8 - 2.9)
• Topic 2e - Nutrition (2.18 - 2.32)
• Topic 2g - Gas exchange (2.49)
• Topic 3a - Reproduction (3.2 – 3.9)
• Topic 3b - Inheritance (3.14 – 3.39)
• Topic 4b - Feeding relationships (4.6 - 4.9)
• Topic 4d - Human influences on the environment (4.14 – 4.17)
• Topic 5a - Food production (5.5 - 5.8)
For 1C:
Our mock paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry 1C paper closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 1c - Atomic structure (1.14 - 1.17)
• Topic 1d - The periodic table (1.18 - 1.24)
• Topic 1e - Chemical formulae, equations and calculations (1.25 - 1.33)
• Topic 1f - Ionic bonding (1.37 - 1.41)
• Topic 1g - Covalent bonding (1.44 - 1.47)
• Topic 2a - Group 1 (2.1 - 2.3)
• Topic 2c - Gases in the atmosphere (2.10 - 2.14)
• Topic 2g - Acids, bases and salt preparations (2.35 - 2.39)
• Topic 2h - Chemical tests (2.44 – 2.50)
• Topic 3a - Energetics (3.1 - 3.4)
• Topic 3b - Rates of reaction (3.12 - 3.13)
• Topic 3c - Reversible reactions and equilibria (3.17)
• Topic 4a - Hydrocarbons (4.1 - 4.6)
• Topic 4c - Alkanes (4.19 - 4.22)
• Topic 4h - Synthetic polymers (4.44 - 4.47)
For 1P:
Our mock paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Physics 1P paper closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 1b - Movement and position (1.6 - 1.9)
• Topic 1c - Forces, movement, shape and momentum (1.13 - 1.24)
• Topic 2c - Energy and voltage in circuits (3.2 - 3.9)
• Topic 3b - Properties of waves (3.10 - 3.13)
• Topic 3d - Light and sound (3.14 - 3.23)
• Topic 4b - Energy resources and energy transfers (4.2 - 4.4)
• Topic 4c - Work and power (4.14 - 4.17)
• Topic 5b - Density and pressure (5.3 - 5.7)
• Topic 6c - Electromagnetism (6.8, 6.13 - 6.14)
• Topic 7b - Radioactivity (7.2 - 7.16)
• Topic 7c - Fission and fusion (7.17 - 7.19)
• Topic 8b - Motion in the universe (8.3 - 8.6)
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the Pearson Edexcel IGCSE Science course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!
This is for the following paper: 4PH1 - 1P
These questions are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
Our mock paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Physics 1P paper closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 1b - Movement and position (1.6 - 1.9)
• Topic 1c - Forces, movement, shape and momentum (1.13 - 1.24)
• Topic 2c - Energy and voltage in circuits (3.2 - 3.9)
• Topic 3b - Properties of waves (3.10 - 3.13)
• Topic 3d - Light and sound (3.14 - 3.23)
• Topic 4b - Energy resources and energy transfers (4.2 - 4.4)
• Topic 4c - Work and power (4.14 - 4.17)
• Topic 5b - Density and pressure (5.3 - 5.7)
• Topic 6c - Electromagnetism (6.8, 6.13 - 6.14)
• Topic 7b - Radioactivity (7.2 - 7.16)
• Topic 7c - Fission and fusion (7.17 - 7.19)
• Topic 8b - Motion in the universe (8.3 - 8.6)
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the Pearson Edexcel IGCSE Physics course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
Powerpoint lecture covering the following in a modern, concise format:
Specification Point 3.3.4.3 - Addition polymers.
Complete set of Chapter 5 Lectures are available.
Back by popular demand for a third year! Our heads of department have once again been hard at work to create a series of predicted exams for Summer 2024!
This is for the following paper: 4CH1 - 1C
These questions are completely original and have been designed from scratch. There has been no reuse of previous exam questions.
Our mock paper follows the format of the true Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry 1C paper closely. It is also the exact duration and mark-count, with questions of increasing difficulty. A mark scheme is also attached.
The paper covers the following specification points:
• Topic 1c - Atomic structure (1.14 - 1.17)
• Topic 1d - The periodic table (1.18 - 1.24)
• Topic 1e - Chemical formulae, equations and calculations (1.25 - 1.33)
• Topic 1f - Ionic bonding (1.37 - 1.41)
• Topic 1g - Covalent bonding (1.44 - 1.47)
• Topic 2a - Group 1 (2.1 - 2.3)
• Topic 2c - Gases in the atmosphere (2.10 - 2.14)
• Topic 2g - Acids, bases and salt preparations (2.35 - 2.39)
• Topic 2h - Chemical tests (2.44 – 2.50)
• Topic 3a - Energetics (3.1 - 3.4)
• Topic 3b - Rates of reaction (3.12 - 3.13)
• Topic 3c - Reversible reactions and equilibria (3.17)
• Topic 4a - Hydrocarbons (4.1 - 4.6)
• Topic 4c - Alkanes (4.19 - 4.22)
• Topic 4h - Synthetic polymers (4.44 - 4.47)
Disclaimer: This document was created by department heads with many years of experience teaching the Pearson Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry course. We cannot however guarantee that it is an accurate representation of the 2024 examinations and students should not treat it as such. Please use this as an aid, alongside other methods of revision.
Companion PDF worksheet for Edexcel IGCSE Biology Lecture 37 - Reproduction in Plants. Contains short answer questions, an activity requiring lateral thinking and exam-style questions.
Specification Point 3.3 - Describe the structures of an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for pollination.
Specification Point 3.4 - Understand that the growth of the pollen tube followed by fertilisation leads to seed and fruit formation.
Specification Point 3.5 - Practical: investigate the conditions needed for seed germination.
Specification Point 3.6 - Understand how germinating seeds utilise food reserves until the seedling can carry out photosynthesis.
Specification Point 3.7 - Understand that plants can reproduce asexually by natural methods (illustrated by runners) and by artificial methods (illustrated by cuttings).
Complete set of Chapter 5 Worksheets are available.
Companion PDF worksheet for Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry Lecture 26 - Energetics. Contains short answer questions, an activity requiring lateral thinking and exam-style questions.
Specification Point 3.1 - Know that chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out are described as exothermic, and those in which heat energy is taken in are described as endothermic.
Specification Point 3.2 - Describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as combustion, displacement, dissolving and neutralisation.
Specification Point 3.3 - Calculate the heat energy change from a measured temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT.
Specification Point 3.4 - Calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy change, Q.
Specification Point 3.8 - Practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of the following types of change: salts dissolving in water, neutralisation reactions, displacement reactions and combustion reactions.
Complete set of Chapter 6 Worksheets are available.
Powerpoint lecture covering the following in a modern, concise format:
Specification Point 3.3 - Describe the structures of an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for pollination.
Specification Point 3.4 - Understand that the growth of the pollen tube followed by fertilization leads to seed and fruit formation.
Specification Point 3.5 - Practical: investigate the conditions needed for seed germination.
Specification Point 3.6 - Understand how germinating seeds utilise food reserves until the seedling can carry out photosynthesis.
Specification Point 3.7 - Understand that plants can reproduce asexually by natural methods (illustrated by runners) and by artificial methods (illustrated by cuttings).
Complete set of Chapter 5 Lectures are available.