In this lesson we introduce the concept of reaction kinetics focusing on collision theory, rates of reaction, activation energy and the effect that changing concentration and pressure will have on reaction rates. This is lesson twenty four in our physical chemistry series for Unit 8: Reaction kinetics (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). LESSON OBJECTIVE: Define rate of reactions in terms of collision theory and activation energy and understand the effect concentration has on reaction rates. LEARNING OUTCOMES (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum): 8.1 Simple Rate Equations, Orders of Reaction and Rate Constants a) explain and use the term rate of reaction b) explain qualitatively, in terms of collisions, the effect of concentration changes on the rate of reaction

In this lesson we describe the relationship between temperature and reaction rates and introduce the concept of the Boltzmann distribution. This is lesson twenty five in our physical chemistry series for Unit 8: Reaction kinetics (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). LESSON OBJECTIVE: Describe the effect of temperature on reaction rates and illustrate this on a Boltzmann distribution. LEARNING OUTCOMES (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum): 8.2 Effect of temperature: on reaction rates and rate constants and the concept of activation energy a) explain and use the term activation energy, including reference to the Boltzmann distribution b) explain qualitatively, in terms both of the Boltzmann distribution and of collision frequency, the effect of temperature change on the rate of a reaction

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Identify characteristic organic functional groups and understand the naming and drawing conventions for organic molecules. In this lesson we introduce the discipline of organic chemistry, in particular introducing different formulas to represent organic molecules, key functional groups and the rules concerning organic nomenclature. This is lesson one in our organic chemistry series for Unit 14 An introduction to organic chemistry (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 14.1 Formulae, functional groups and the naming of organic compounds a) interpret and use the general, structural, displayed and skeletal formulae of the following classes of compound: (i) alkanes, alkenes (ii) halogenoalkanes (iii) alcohols (including primary, secondary and tertiary) (iv) aldehydes and ketones (v) carboxylic acids, esters (vi) amines (primary only), nitriles b) understand and use systematic nomenclature of simple aliphatic organic molecules with functional groups detailed in 14.1 (a), up to six carbon atoms (six plus six for esters and amides, straight chains only) d) deduce the possible isomers for an organic molecule of known molecular formula e) deduce the molecular formula of a compound, given its structural, displayed or skeletal formula

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Use orbital hybridisation to determine the shape of an organic molecule and understand and identify different types of structural isomerism and stereoisomerism. In this lesson we discuss how hybridisation, molecular geometries and sigma and pi bonds are linked to organic structure and formulas. We then introduce isomerism by looking at the different types of structural isomerism (position, functional group and chain) and stereoisomerism (cis-trans and optical). This is lesson two in our organic chemistry unit for Unit 14: An introduction to organic chemistry (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 14.3 Shapes of organic molecules; σ and π bonds a) (i) describe and explain the shape of, and bond angles in, the ethane and ethene molecules a) in terms of σ and π bonds (ii) predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, other related molecules 14.4 Isomerism: structural and stereoisomerism a) describe structural isomerism and its division into chain, positional and functional group isomerism b) describe stereoisomerism and its division into geometrical (cis-trans) and optical isomerism (use of E, Z nomenclature is acceptable but is not required) c) describe geometrical (cis-trans) isomerism in alkenes, and explain its origin in terms of restricted rotation due to the presence of π bonds d) explain what is meant by a chiral centre and that such a centre normally gives rise to optical isomerism e) identify chiral centres and geometrical (cis-trans) isomerism in a molecule of given structural formula

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Understand the properties and uses of nitrogen and ammonia. In this lesson we investigate Nitrogen, the formation of its oxides, the Haber process to synthesise ammonia and the use of ammonium salts as fertilizers. This is lesson eight in our inorganic chemistry series for Unit 13: Nitrogen and sulfur (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 13.1 Nitrogen a) explain the lack of reactivity of nitrogen b) describe and explain: ii) the basicity of ammonia iii) the structure of the ammonium ion and its formation by an acid-base reaction iii) the displacement of ammonia from its salts c) state the industrial importance of ammonia and nitrogen compounds derived from ammonia d) state and explain the environmental consequences of the uncontrolled use of nitrate fertilisers e) state and explain the natural and man-made occurrences of oxides of nitrogen and their catalytic removal from the exhaust gases of internal combustion engines f) explain why atmospheric oxides of nitrogen are pollutants, including their catalytic role in the oxidation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Describe certain reactions of halides and halogens and state some uses of halogens and their compounds. In this lesson we some reactions of the Halogens, the concept of disproportionation and discuss some of the uses of the halogens and their compounds. This is lesson seven in our inorganic chemistry series for Unit 11: Group 17 (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 11.3 Some reactions of the halide ions a) describe and explain the reactions of halide ions with: i) aqueous silver ions followed by aqueous ammonia ii) concentrated sulfuric acid 11.4 The reactions of chlorine with aqueous sodium hydroxide a) describe and interpret, in terms of changes of oxidation number, the reaction of chlorine with cold and with hot aqueous sodium hydroxide and recognise this as a disproportionation reaction 11.5 Some important uses of the halogens and of halogen compounds a) explain the use of chlorine in water purification b) state the industrial importance and environmental significance of the halogens and their compounds (e.g. for bleaches, PVC, halogenated hydrocarbons as solvents, refrigerants and in aerosols. See also Section 16.2).

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Describe homolytic and heterolytic fission, understand how to draw reaction mechanisms for both and identify a number of characteristic organic reactions. In this lesson we introduce the idea of reaction mechanisms to communicate the steps in an organic reaction and the concepts of homolytic and heteroytic fission. We also summarise the main types of organic reactions (addition, elimination, substitution, hydrolysis, oxidation and reduction). This is lesson three in our organic chemistry series of Unit 14: An introduction to organic chemistry (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 14.2 Characteristic organic reactions a) interpret and use the following terminology associated with types of organic reactions: (i) functional group (ii) homolytic and heterolytic fission (iii) free radical, initiation, propagation, termination (iv) nucleophile, electrophile (v) addition, substitution, elimination, hydrolysis, condensation (vi) oxidation and reduction (in equations for organic redox reactions, the symbols [O] and [H] are acceptable for oxidising and reducing agents

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Describe and understand the trends observed in the physical and chemical properties of the group 17 halogens. In this lesson we investigate the physical properties and chemical reactivity of the Group 17 Halogens and investigate the formation and properties of hydrogen halides. This is lesson six in our inorganic chemistry series for Unit 11: Group 17 (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 11.1 Physical properties of the Group 17 elements a) describe the colours and the trend in volatility of chlorine, bromine and iodine b) interpret the volatility of the elements in terms of van der Waals’ forces 11.2 The chemical properties of the elements and the hydrides a) describe the relative reactivity of the elements as oxidising agents (see also Section 6.3(f)) b) describe and explain the reactions of the elements with hydrogen c) i) describe and explain the relative thermal stabilities of the hydrides ii) interpret these relative stabilities in terms of bond energies

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Understand the trends in chemical properties and some of the uses of Group 2 compounds. In this lesson we investigate chemical reactions of the Group 2 elements and their compounds and look at some uses of Group 2 compounds. This is lesson five in our inorganic chemistry series for Unit 10: Group 2 (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 10.1 Similarities and trends in the properties of the Group 2 metals, magnesium to barium, and their compounds a) describe the reactions of the elements with oxygen, water and dilute acids b) describe the behaviour of the oxides, hydroxides and carbonates with water and dilute acids c) describe the thermal decomposition of the nitrates and carbonates e) state the variation in the solubilities of the hydroxides and sulfates 10.2 Some uses of Group 2 compounds a) describe and explain the use of calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate (powdered limestone) in agriculture

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Describe and understand the properties of alkanes and characteristic reactions including combustion reactions and free-radical substitution reactions with chlorine and bromine. In this lesson we introduce the topic of hydrocarbons and in particular focus on the properties and reactions of the alkanes homologous series. This is lesson four in our organic chemistry series of Unit 15: Hydrocarbons (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 15.1 Alkanes a) understand the general unreactivity of alkanes, including towards polar reagents b) describe the chemistry of alkanes as exemplified by the following reactions of ethane: (i) combustion (ii) substitution by chlorine and bromine c) describe the mechanism of free-radical substitution at methyl groups with particular reference to the initiation, propagation and termination reactions

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Understand the properties of sulfur and in particular describe its role in the formation of acid rain. In this lesson we investigate sulfur and its reactions to form oxides, the formation of acid rain and the synthesis of sulfuric acid via the Contact process. This is lesson nine in our inorganic chemistry series for Unit 13: Nitrogen and sulfur (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 13.2 Sulfur: the formation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide, its role in acid rain a) describe the formation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide from the combustion of sulfur-contaminated fossil fuels b) state the role of sulfur dioxide in the formation of acid rain and describe the main environmental consequence of acid rain

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Investigate substitution and elimination reactions of halogenoalkanes and describe some of their uses and pollution. In this lesson we investigate the homologous series of halogenoalkanes but introducing key reactions they undergo (substitution and elimination), describe their uses, how they act as pollutants and the detrimental effect they have had on the ozone layer. This is lesson eight in our organic chemistry series of Unit 16: Halogen derivatives (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 16.1 Halogenoalkanes a) recall the chemistry of halogenoalkanes as exemplified by: (i) the following nucleophilic substitution reactions of bromoethane: hydrolysis, formation of nitriles, formation of primary amines by reaction with ammonia (ii) the elimination of hydrogen bromide from 2-bromopropane 16.2 Relative strength of the C-Hal bond b) explain the uses of fluoroalkanes and fluorohalogenoalkanes in terms of their relative chemical inertness c) recognise the concern about the effect of chlorofluoroalkanes on the ozone layer

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Understand oxidation and addition polymerisation reactions with alkenes and describe the use and pollution of plastics. In this lesson we continue our investigation of alkenes by discussing the different products that can be formed in the oxidation of an alkene, introduce the concept of addition polymerisation to make polymers and how these polymer plastics can be used and the pollution associated with them. This is lesson 7 in our organic chemistry series of Unit 15: Hydrocarbons (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 15.2 Alkenes a) describe the chemistry of alkanes as exemplified, where relevant, by the following reactions of ethene and propene (including the Markovnikov addition of asymmetric electrophiles using propene as an example): (ii) oxidation by cold, dilute, acidified manganate(VII) ions to form the diol (iii) oxidation by hot, concentrated, acidified manganate(VII) ions leading to the rupture of the carbon-carbon double bond in order to determine the position of alkene linkages in larger molecules (iv) polymerisation d) describe the characteristics of addition polymerisation as exemplified by poly(ethene) and PVC e) deduce the repeat unit of an addition polymer obtained given a monomer f) identify the monomer(s) present in a given section of an addition polymer molecule g) recognise the difficulty of the disposal of poly(alkane)s, i.e. non-biodegradability and harmful combustion products

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Investigate certain properties of hydrocarbons, understand the extraction of alkanes from crude oil via fractional distillation and describe the uses and pollutions of hydrocarbon combustion. In this lesson we discuss how crude oil can be separated using fractional distillation into different fractions for various uses, how combustion reactions of hydrocarbons allow them to be used as fuels and the effects of the pollution that arises from this and discuss the effects on the solubility of molecules. This is lesson five in our organic chemistry series of Unit 15: Hydrocarbons (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 15.1 Alkanes d) explain the use of crude oil as a source of both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons e) suggest how cracking can be used to obtain more useful alkanes and alkenes of lower Mr from larger hydrocarbon molecules 15.3 Hydrocarbons as fuels a) describe and explain how the combustion reactions of alkanes make them suitable to be used as fuels in industry, in the home and in transport b) recognise the environmental consequences of: (i) carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and unburnt hydrocarbons arising from the internal combustion engine and of their catalytic removal (ii) gases that contribute to the enhanced greenhouse effect c) outline the use of infra-red spectroscopy in monitoring air pollution

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Understand the mechanism of SN1 and SN2 nucleophilic substitution reactions of halogenoalkanes and describe the relative strength of the C-Hal bond. In this lesson we investigate the differences in reaction mechanism between SN1 and SN2 reactions, describe the factors that effect which one will be observed in a nucleophilic substitution reaction and investigate how the carbon-halogen bond strength effect the rate of reaction. This is lesson nine in our organic chemistry series of Unit 16: Halogen derivatives (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 16.1 Halogenoalkanes a) recall the chemistry of halogenoalkanes as exemplified by: (i) the following nucleophilic substitution reactions of bromoethane: hydrolysis, formation of nitriles, formation of primary amines by reaction with ammonia b) describe the SN1 and SN2 mechanisms of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes including the inductive effects of alkyl groups c) recall that primary halogenoalkanes tend to react via the SN2 mechanism; tertiary halogenoalkanes via the SN1 mechanism; and secondary halogenoalkanes by a mixture of the two, depending on structure. 16.2 Relative strength of the C-Hal bond a) interpret the different reactivities of halogenoalkanes (with particular reference to hydrolysis and to the relative strengths of the C-Hal bonds)

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Understand the mechanism of electrophilic addition reactions for alkenes and predict the products of these reactions (applying Markovnikov’s rule when appropriate). In this lesson we introduce the homologous series of the alkenes by investigating alkene addition reactions, the mechanism by which this electrophilic addition occurs and the effect the carbocation stability and Markovnikov’s rule will have on predicting the product of these types of reactions. This is lesson six in our organic chemistry series of Unit 15: Hydrocarbons (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 15.2 Alkenes a) describe the chemistry of alkenes as exemplified, where relevant, by the following reactions of ethene and propene (including the Markovnikov addition of asymmetric electrophiles using propene as an example): (i) addition of hydrogen, steam, hydrogen halides and halogens b) describe the mechanism of electrophilic addition in alkenes, including using bromine/ethene and hydrogen bromide/propene as examples c) describe and explain the inductive effects of alkyl groups on the stability of cations formed during electrophilic addition

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Describe chemical tests that can be used to test for, and distinguishing between, the carbonyls present in aldehydes and ketones In this lesson we describe the 2,4-DNPH test to identify the carbonyl on an aldehyde or ketones and then investigates tests using Fehling’s and Tollens’ reagent to distinguish between the two. Finally we discuss the iodoform test to identify a methyl ketone group present. This is lesson thirteen in our organic chemistry series of Unit 18: Carbonyl compounds (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 18.1 Aldehydes and ketones c) describe the use of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH) to detect the presence of carbonyl compounds d) deduce the nature (aldehyde or ketone) of an unknown carbonyl compound from the results of simple tests (Fehling’s and Tollens’ reagents; ease of oxidation) e) describe the reaction of CH3CO- compounds with alkaline aqueous iodine to give tri-iodomethane

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Understand the properties of aldehydes and ketones as carbonyl compounds by investigating their synthesis and key chemical reactions. In this lesson we investigate the carbonyl compounds aldehydes and ketones by discussing their synthesis via the oxidation of alcohols, their reduction back to the corresponding alcohol and their nucleophilic addition reactions with cyanide. This is lesson twelve in our organic chemistry series of Unit 18: Carbonyl compounds (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 18.1 Aldehydes and ketones a) describe: i) the formation of aldehydes and ketones from primary and secondary alcohols respectively using Cr2O72-/H+ ii) the reduction of aldehydes and ketones, e.g. using NaBH4 or LiAlH4 iii) the reaction of aldehydes and ketones with HCN and NaCN or KCN b) describe the mechanism of the nucleophilic addition reactions of hydrogen cyanide with aldehydes and ketones

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Describe the homologous series of the alcohols and investigate their chemistry through specific reactions. In this lesson we introduce the homologous series called Alcohols, discuss combustion, halide substitution and sodium reactions and discuss how to test for the presence of a CH3CH(OH)- group. This is lesson ten in our organic chemistry series of Unit 17: Hydroxy compounds (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 17.1 Alcohols a) recall the chemistry of alcohols, exemplified by ethanol, in the following reactions (i) combustion (ii) substitution to halogenoalkanes (iii) reaction with sodium b) (i) classify hydroxy compounds into primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols c) deduce the presence of a CH3CH(OH)– group in an alcohol from its reaction with alkaline aqueous iodine to form tri-iodomethane

LESSON OBJECTIVE: Investigate and predict the products of oxidation, reduction and esterification reactions of alcohols. In this lesson we continue our discussion on reactions of alcohols by investigating oxidation, reduction and esterification reactions and disuss how reactions can be used to identify the type of alcohol present. This is lesson eleven in our organic chemistry series of Unit 17: Hydroxy compounds (from the Cambridge International AS Chemistry Curriculum (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum). Learning Outcomes: (taken from the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry (9701) 2019-2021 curriculum) 17.1 Alcohols a) recall the chemistry of alcohols, exemplified by ethanol, in the following reactions: (iv) oxidation to carbonyl compounds and carboxylic acids (v) dehydration to alkenes (vi) formation of esters by esterification with carboxylic acids b) (ii) suggest characteristic distinguishing reactions, e.g. mild oxidation